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The internment of Japanese Americans in the United States was the forced relocation and incarceration during World War II of between 110,000 and 120,000〔Various primary and secondary sources list counts between persons.〕 people of Japanese ancestry who lived on the Pacific coast in camps in the interior of the country. Sixty-two percent of the internees were United States citizens.〔''Semiannual Report of the War Relocation Authority, for the period January 1 to June 30, 1946,'' not dated. Papers of Dillon S. Myer. (Scanned image at ) trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September 18, 2006.〕〔"The War Relocation Authority and The Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II: 1948 Chronology," (Web page ) at www.trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September 11, 2006.〕 President Roosevelt ordered the Incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II, shortly after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.〔National Park Service. (Manzanar National Historic Site )〕 Such incarceration was applied unequally due to differing population concentrations and, more importantly, state and regional politics: more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000-plus Japanese Americans comprised over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.〔Ogawa, Dennis M. and Fox, Jr., Evarts C. ''Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress''. 1991, page 135.〕 The forced relocation and incarceration has been determined to have resulted more from racism and discrimination among white people on the West Coast, rather than any military danger posed by the Japanese Americans.〔https://artifactsjournal.missouri.edu/2012/03/wwii-propaganda-the-influence-of-racism/〕 President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the deportation and incarceration with Executive Order 9066, issued February 19, 1942, which allowed regional military commanders to designate "military areas" from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire West Coast, including all of California and much of Oregon, Washington and Arizona, except for those in government camps.〔(''Korematsu v. United States'' ) dissent by Justice Owen Josephus Roberts, reproduced at findlaw.com. Retrieved September 12, 2006.〕 Approximately 5,000 Japanese Americans voluntarily relocated outside the exclusion zone,〔Brian Niiya. ("Voluntary evacuation," ) ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved March 12, 2014.〕 and some 5,500 community leaders arrested after Pearl Harbor were already in custody,〔Densho, ("About the Incarceration." )〕 but the majority of mainland Japanese Americans were evacuated (forcibly relocated) from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans. The Bureau denied its role for decades, but this was finally proven in 2007. In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsu's appeal for violating an exclusion order.〔(''Korematsu v. United States'' ) majority opinion by Justice Hugo Black, reproduced at findlaw.com. Retrieved September 11, 2006〕 The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders, avoiding the issue of the incarceration of U.S. citizens with no due process. In 1980, under mounting pressure from the Japanese American Citizens League and redress organizations,〔Sharon Yamato. ("Civil Liberties Act of 1988," ) ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved March 11, 2014.〕 President Jimmy Carter opened an investigation to determine whether the decision to put Japanese Americans into internment camps had been justified by the government. He appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to investigate the camps. The Commission's report, titled ''Personal Justice Denied'', found little evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time and, concluding the incarceration had been the product of racism, recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Civil Liberties Act, which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government and authorized a payment of $20,000 to each individual camp survivor. The legislation admitted that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership."〔100th Congress, S. 1009, (reproduced at ), internmentarchives.com. Retrieved September 19, 2006.〕 The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs.〔〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Wwii Reparations: Japanese-American Internees )〕 Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack, 112,000 resided on the West Coast.〔Okihiro, Gary Y. ''The Columbia Guide to Asian American History''. 2005, page 104〕 About 80,000 were ''nisei'' (literal translation: "second generation"; American-born Japanese with U.S. citizenship) and ''sansei'' ("third generation"; the children of Nisei). The rest were ''issei'' ("first generation", immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship by U.S. law).〔Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina Pestana. ''The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society'', Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman, 2007〕 ==Japanese Americans before World War II== Due in large part to socio-political changes stemming from the Meiji Restoration — and a recession caused by the abrupt opening of Japan's economy to the world market — people began migrating from Japan in 1868 to find work to survive.〔Anderson, Emily. "(Immigration )," ''Densho Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 14, 2014.〕 From 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers arriving to work on the islands' sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U.S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast and establishing farms or small businesses.〔 Most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemen's Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the country to join their husbands. The practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U.S. resulted in a large increase of "picture brides" and, soon after, children.〔〔Nakamura, Kelli Y. "()," ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved August 14, 2014.〕 As the Japanese American population continued to grow, European Americans on the West Coast resisted the new group, fearing competition and exaggerating the idea of hordes of Asians keen to take over white-owned farmland and businesses. Groups such as the Japanese Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and the Native Sons of the Golden West organized in response to this "Yellow Peril" and lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants.〔Anderson, Emily. "(Anti-Japanese exclusion movement )," ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved August 14, 2014.〕 Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century. The Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other "undesirable" Asian countries. The 1924 ban on immigration produced unusually well-defined generational groups within the Japanese American community. The Issei were exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924; some retained longings to return to their homeland. Because no new immigration was permitted, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 were, by definition, born in the U.S. and automatically U.S. citizens. This Nisei generation were a distinct cohort from their parents. In addition to the usual generational differences, Issei men were typically ten to fifteen years older than their wives, making them significantly older than the younger children of their often large families.〔 U.S. law prohibited Japanese immigrants from becoming naturalized citizens, making them dependent on their children to rent or purchase property. Communication between English-speaking children and parents who spoke mostly or completely in Japanese was often difficult. A significant number of older Nisei, many of whom were born prior to the immigration ban, had married and already started families of their own by the outbreak of World War II. Despite racist legislation that prevented Issei from becoming naturalized citizens (and therefore from owning property, voting, or running for political office), these Japanese immigrants established communities in their new hometowns. Japanese Americans contributed to the agriculture of California and other Western states, by introducing irrigation methods that enabled the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers on previously inhospitable land. In both rural and urban areas, ''kenjinkai'', community groups for immigrants from the same Japanese prefecture, and ''fujinkai'', Buddhist women's associations, organized community events and charitable work, provided loans and financial assistance, and built Japanese language schools for their children. Excluded from setting up shop in white neighborhoods, Nikkei-owned small businesses thrived in the ''Nihonmachi'', or Japantowns of urban centers such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. In the 1930s the Office of Naval Intelligence, concerned by Imperial Japan's rising military power in the East, began conducting surveillance on Japanese American communities in Hawaii. From 1936, at the behest of President Roosevelt, the ONI began compiling a "special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp in the event of trouble" between Japan and the United States. In 1939, again by order of the President, the ONI, Military Intelligence Division, and FBI began working together to compile a larger Custodial Detention Index.〔Kashima, Tetsuden. "(Custodial detention / A-B-C list )," ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved August 14, 2014.〕 Early in 1941, Roosevelt commissioned Charles Munson to conduct an investigation on Japanese Americans living on the West Coast and in Hawaii. After working with FBI and ONI officials and interviewing Japanese Americans and those familiar with them, Munson determined that the "Japanese problem" was nonexistent. His final report to the President, submitted November 7, 1941, "certified a remarkable, even extraordinary degree of loyalty among this generally suspect ethnic group."〔Weglyn, Michi Nishiura. ''Years of Infamy'' (New York: William Morrow & Company, 1976) p34.〕 A subsequent report by Kenneth Ringle, delivered to the President in January 1942, also found little evidence to support claims of Japanese American disloyalty and argued against mass incarceration.〔Niiya, Brian. "(Kenneth Ringle )," ''Densho Encyclopedia''. Retrieved August 14, 2014.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Internment of Japanese Americans」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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